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Larch

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Larch (disambiguation).

Larch
Larix decidua in Aletschwald, Switzerland
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnospermae
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order: Pinales
Family: Pinaceae
Subfamily: Laricoideae
Genus: Larix
Mill.
Type species
Larix decidua
Species

About 10–11; see text

Larches are deciduous conifers in the genus Larix, of the family Pinaceae (subfamily Laricoideae). Growing from 20 to 50 metres (65 to 165 feet) tall,[1] they are native to the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere, where they are found in lowland forests in the high latitudes, and high in mountains further south. Larches are among the dominant plants in the boreal forests of Siberia and Canada. Although they are conifers, larches are deciduous trees that lose their needles in the autumn.

Etymology

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The English name larch ultimately derives from the Latin "larigna", named after the ancient settlement of Larignum[dubious – discuss]. The story of its naming was preserved by Vitruvius:

It is worth while to know how this wood was discovered. The divine Caesar, being with his army in the neighbourhood of the Alps, and having ordered the towns to furnish supplies, the inhabitants of a fortified stronghold there, called Larignum, trusting in the natural strength of their defences, refused to obey his command. So the general ordered his forces to the assault. In front of the gate of this stronghold there was a tower, made of beams of this wood laid in alternating directions at right angles to each other, like a funeral pyre, and built high, so that they could drive off an attacking party by throwing stakes and stones from the top. When it was observed that they had no other missiles than stakes, and that these could not be hurled very far from the wall on account of the weight, orders were given to approach and to throw bundles of brushwood and lighted torches at this outwork. These the soldiers soon got together.

The flames soon kindled the brushwood which lay about that wooden structure and, rising towards heaven, made everybody think that the whole pile had fallen. But when the fire had burned itself out and subsided, and the tower appeared to view entirely uninjured, Caesar in amazement gave orders that they should be surrounded with a palisade, built beyond the range of missiles. So the townspeople were frightened into surrendering, and were then asked where that wood came from which was not harmed by fire. They pointed to trees of the kind under discussion, of which there are very great numbers in that vicinity. And so, as that stronghold was called Larignum, the wood was called larch.

— "Book II" . Ten Books on Architecture – via Wikisource.

Description and distribution

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European larch foliage and cones

The tallest species, Larix occidentalis, can reach 50 to 60 m (165 to 195 ft). Larch tree crowns are sparse, with the major branches horizontal; the second and third order branchlets are also ± horizontal in some species (e.g. L. gmelinii, L. kaempferi), or characteristically pendulous in some other species (e.g. L. decidua, L. griffithii). Larch shoots are dimorphic, with leaves borne singly on long shoots typically 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in) long[2]: 47  and bearing several buds, and in dense clusters of 20–50 needles on short shoots[2] only 1–2 mm (1⁄32–3⁄32 in) long with only a single bud. The leaves (light green) are needle-like, 2 to 5 cm (3⁄4 to 2 in) long, slender (under 1 cm or 1⁄2 in wide). Larches are among the few deciduous conifers, which are usually evergreen. Other deciduous conifers include the golden larch Pseudolarix amabilis, the dawn redwood Metasequoia glyptostroboides, the Chinese swamp cypress Glyptostrobus pensilis and the bald cypresses in the genus Taxodium.

The male (pollen) cones are greenish-yellow to orange-yellowish and fall soon after pollination. The female cones) of larches are erect, small, 1–9 cm (1⁄2–3+1⁄2 in) long, green, red, or purple, ripening brown and woody- or leathery-textured 5–8 months after pollination; in about half the species the bract scales are long and visible, and in the others, short and hidden between the seed scales. Those native to northern regions have small cones (1–3 cm or 1⁄2–1 in) with short bracts, with more southerly species tending to have longer cones (3–9 cm or 1+1⁄4–3+1⁄2 in), often with exserted bracts, with the longest cones and bracts produced by the southernmost species, in the Himalayas. The seeds are winged. The root system is broad and deep and the bark is finely cracked and wrinkled in irregular plaques. The wood is bicoloured, with salmon-pink heartwood and yellowish-white sapwood.

The chromosome number is 2n = 24, similar to that of most of the other species of the family Pinaceae.

The genus Larix is present in all the temperate-cold zones of the northern hemisphere, from North America to northern Siberia passing through Europe, mountainous China and Japan. The larches are important forest trees of Russia, Central Europe, United States and Canada. They require a cool and fairly humid climate and for this reason they are found in the mountains of the temperate zones, while in the northernmost boreal zones they are also found in the plains. Larch trees go further north than all, reaching in North America and Siberia the tundra and polar ice. The larches are pioneer species not very demanding towards the soil and they are very long-lived trees. They live in pure or mixed forests together with other conifers or more rarely with broad-leaved trees.

Species and taxonomy

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A suggested phylogeny of Larix from Stull et al., 2021[3][4] Note that this is not in accord with other taxonomic references cited below.
series

L. potaninii Batalin

Potaniniae
series

L. occidentalis Nuttall

Occidentales
series

L. decidua Miller

Deciduae

L. cajanderi Mayr

series

L. griffithii Hooker

L. gmelinii (Rupr.) Kuzen.

Griffithianae
series

L. kaempferi (Lamb.) Carrière

L. laricina (Du Roi) Koch

L. lyallii Parlatore

L. sibirica Ledeb.

Laricinae

The genus Larix belongs to the subfamily Laricoideae, which also includes the Douglas-firs, genus Pseudotsuga; the genus Cathaya was also included in some older studies,[5] but is now considered closer to Pinus and Picea.[6][3] In the past, the cone bract length was often used to divide the larches into two sections (sect. Larix with short bracts, and sect. Multiserialis with long bracts), but genetic evidence[7] does not support this division, pointing instead to a genetic divide between Old World and New World species, with the cone and bract size being merely adaptations to climatic conditions. More recent genetic studies have proposed three groups within the genus, with a primary division into North American and Eurasian species, and a secondary division of the Eurasian into northern short-bracted species and southern long-bracted species;[8][9][10][11] there is some dispute over the position of Larix sibirica, a short-bracted species which is placed in the short-bracted group by some of the studies and the long-bracted group by others.

Ten species and one natural hybrid of larch are accepted by Plants of the World Online (POWO),[12] following the conservative treatment in Farjon (2010);[5] several others are accepted by other authors, notably Rushforth,[1] and the Flora of China.[13] These are subdivided on the basis of the most recent phylogenetic investigations:

Eurasian species

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Siberian larches

Northern Eurasian species with short bracts

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  • Larix decidua Mill. (syn. L. europaea D.C.) – European larch. Mountains of central Europe.
  • Larix sibirica Ledeb. – Siberian larch. Plains of western Siberia.
  • Larix × czekanowskii Szafer – an accepted hybrid between L. gmelinii and L. sibirica.[12]
  • Larix gmelinii (Rupr.) Göpp. (syn. L. dahurica Turcz. ex Trautv., L. cajanderi Mayr) – Dahurian larch. Plains of central and eastern Siberia.
  • Larix principis-rupprechtii Mayr – Prince Rupprecht's larch. Mountains of northeastern China (disputed; accepted by Rushforth[1] and many Chinese botanists;[14][15] treated as a variety of L. gmelinii by POWO[12] despite its disjunct distribution and much larger cones).
  • Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carr. (syn. L. leptolepis (Siebold & Zucc.) Gordon & Glend.) – Japanese larch. Mountains of central Japan.

Southern Euroasiatic species with long bracts

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Larix griffithii in Bhutan
  • Larix potaninii Batalin – Chinese larch. Mountains of southwestern China (southern Sichuan, northern Yunnan).
  • Larix mastersiana Rehder & E.H.Wilson – Masters' larch. Mountains of western China (northern Sichuan).
  • Larix griffithii Hook.f. (syn. L. griffithiana) – Sikkim larch. Mountains of the eastern Himalayas, on the wet (high monsoon) southern slopes.
  • Larix himalaica W.C.Cheng & L.K.Fu - Langtang larch. Mountains of the central Himalayas (disputed; accepted by Rushforth[1] and the Flora of China;[13] treated as a variety of L. potaninii by POWO[12] despite being geographically distant from it).
  • Larix kongboensis R.R.Mill - Kongbo larch. Mountains of southeastern Tibet, on the dry northern side of the Himalaya in the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon area (disputed; accepted by the Flora of China;[13] treated as a synonym of L. griffithii by POWO[12] despite its smaller cones and other distinct characters[13]).
  • Larix speciosa W.C.Cheng & Y.W.Law - Burmese larch. Mountains of southwestern China (southwestern Yunnan) and northeastern Myanmar (disputed; accepted by Rushforth[1] and the Flora of China;[13] treated as a variety of L. griffithii by POWO[12] despite being geographically distant from it, and closer to L. potaninii in morphology[1]).

North American species

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Larch forest in the North Cascades

Hybrids

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Most if not all of the species can be hybridised in cultivation;[16] these hybrids are not discussed by POWO as they are not of natural occurrence. The hybrid Larix × marschlinsii Coaz (syn. L. × eurolepis), the Dunkeld larch, a spontaneous artificial hybrid L. decidua × L. kaempferi that arose more or less simultaneously in Switzerland and Scotland in 1901–1904,[17] is by far the best known, being of major importance in forestry in northern Europe. Larix × pendula (Sol.) Salisb. (L. decidua × L. laricina),[18] and Larix × eurokurilensis Rohm. (L. decidua × L. gmelinii)[16] have also been named, but are rarely seen in cultivation.

Larix × stenophylla Sukaczev is another probable hybrid still unresolved.[citation needed]

Ecology

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Larches are associated with a number of mycorrhizal fungal species, including some species which primarily or only associate with larch. One of the most prominent of these species is the larch bolete Suillus grevillei.[19]

Larch is used as a food plant by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species.

Diseases

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Larches are prone to the fungal canker disease Lachnellula ssp. (larch canker); this is particularly a problem on sites prone to late spring frosts, which cause minor injuries to the tree allowing entry to the fungal spores. In Canada, this disease was first detected in 1980 and is particularly harmful to an indigenous species larch, the tamarack, killing both young and mature trees.[20] Larches are also vulnerable to Phytophthora ramorum. In late 2009 the disease was first found in Japanese larch trees in the English counties of Devon, Cornwall and Somerset, and has since spread to the south-west of Scotland.[21][failed verification] In August 2010 the disease was found in Japanese larch trees in counties Waterford and Tipperary in Ireland[22][failed verification] and in 2013 in the Afan Forest Park in south Wales.[23] Laricifomes officinalis is another mushroom found in Europe, North America and northern Asia that causes internal wood rot. It is almost exclusive guest of the gen. Larix. Other diseases are given by mushrooms, fungal rusts, bacteria and insects.

Uses

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Larch wood is valued for its tough, waterproof and durable qualities. Top quality knot-free timber is in great demand for building yachts and other small boats, for exterior cladding of buildings, and interior paneling. The timber is somewhat resistant to rot when in contact with the ground, and historically was used as posts and in fencing. However, European Standard EN 350-2 lists larch as slightly to moderately durable; this would make it unsuitable for ground contact use without preservative in temperate climates, and would give it a limited life as external cladding without coatings.[24]

The hybrid Dunkeld larch is widely grown as a timber crop in Northern Europe, valued for its fast growth and disease resistance.

Larch on oak was the traditional construction method for Scottish fishing boats in the 19th century.[citation needed]

Larch has also been used in herbal medicine; see Bach flower remedies and Arabinogalactan for details.

Often, in Eurasian shamanism, the "world tree" is depicted as specifically a larch tree.[25] Planted on borders with birch, both tree species were used in pagan cremations.[citation needed]

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f Rushforth, Keith D. (1987). Conifers. London: Helm. ISBN 0-7470-2801-X.
  2. ^ a b Stace, C. A. (2010). New Flora of the British Isles (Third ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-70772-5.
  3. ^ a b Stull, Gregory W.; Qu, Xiao-Jian; Parins-Fukuchi, Caroline; Yang, Ying-Ying; Yang, Jun-Bo; Yang, Zhi-Yun; Hu, Yi; Ma, Hong; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Li, De-Zhu; Smith, Stephen A.; Yi, Ting-Shuang; et al. (2021). "Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms". Nature Plants. 7 (8): 1015–1025. Bibcode:2021NatPl...7.1015S. bioRxiv 10.1101/2021.03.13.435279. doi:10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4. PMID 34282286. S2CID 232282918.
  4. ^ Stull, Gregory W.; et al. (2021). "main.dated.supermatrix.tree.T9.tre". Figshare. doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14547354.v1.
  5. ^ a b Farjon, Aljos (27 April 2010). A Handbook of the World's Conifers (2 Vols.). Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-17718-5.
  6. ^ Yang, Yong; Ferguson, David Kay; Liu, Bing; Mao, Kang-Shan; Gao, Lian-Ming; Zhang, Shou-Zhou; Wan, Tao; Rushforth, Keith; Zhang, Zhi-Xiang (2022). "Recent advances on phylogenomics of gymnosperms and a new classification". Plant Diversity. 44 (4): 340–350. doi:10.1016/j.pld.2022.05.003. PMC 9363647. PMID 35967253.
  7. ^ Gernandt, D. S.; Liston, A. (1999). "Internal transcribed spacer region evolution in Larix and Pseudotsuga (Pinaceae)". American Journal of Botany. 86 (5). Botanical Society of America: 711–723. doi:10.2307/2656581. JSTOR 2656581. PMID 10330075.
  8. ^ Semerikov, Vladimir L.; Lascoux, Martin (1999). "Genetic relationship among Eurasian and American Larix species based on allozymes". Heredity. 83: 62–70. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6885310. PMID 10447704. S2CID 22249365.
  9. ^ Wei, X.-X.; Wang, X.-Q. (2003). "Phylogenetic split of Larix: evidence from paternally inherited cpDNA trnT-trnF region". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 239 (1–2): 67–77. Bibcode:2003PSyEv.239...67W. doi:10.1007/s00606-002-0264-3. S2CID 39213284.
  10. ^ Wei, X.-X.; Wang, X.-Q. (2004). "Recolonization and radiation in Larix (Pinaceae): evidence from nuclear ribosomal DNA paralogues". Molecular Ecology. 13 (10): 3115–3123. Bibcode:2004MolEc..13.3115W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02299.x. PMID 15367124. S2CID 11329782.
  11. ^ Gros-Louis, Marie-Claude; Bousquet, Jean; Pâques, Luc E.; Isabel, Nathalie (2005). "Species-diagnostic markers in Larix spp. based on RAPDs and nuclear, cpDNA, and mtDNA gene sequences, and their phylogenetic implications". Tree Genetics & Genomes. 1 (2): 50–63. doi:10.1007/s11295-005-0007-z. S2CID 44245647.
  12. ^ a b c d e f "Larix Mill". Plants of the World Online. London: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  13. ^ a b c d e "Larix in the Flora of China @ efloras.org". eFloras.org Home. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  14. ^ Zhang, Jianwei; Xu, Huacheng (1995). Schmidt, Wyman C.; McDonald, Kathy J. (eds.). Silvics of Larix principis-rupprechtii Mayr. in: Ecology and Management of Larix Forests GTR-INT-319: USDA Forest Service. pp. 227–230.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  15. ^ Li, Wenrong; Qi, Liwang; Han, Youzhi; Zhang, Jianwei (1995). Schmidt, Wyman C.; McDonald, Kathy J. (eds.). Distribution and Variation of Larix principis-rupprechtii forest in Shanxi Province. in: Ecology and Management of Larix Forests GTR-INT-319: USDA Forest Service. pp. 360–364.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  16. ^ a b Vidaković, Mirko (1991). Conifers (English ed.). Croatia: Grafički Zavod Hrvatske. pp. 255–281.
  17. ^ Candolle, Roger de; Burdet, Hervé M. (1983). "The correct name of the Dunkeld, or Hybrid, Larch". International Dendrology Society Yearbook. 1982: 67–68.
  18. ^ Mitchell, Alan (1972). "Conifers in the British Isles: a descriptive handbook" (PDF). p. 142. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  19. ^ Smith, Nathan (2017). "British larch-associated Basidiomycota: a review". Field Mycology. 18 (3): 98–103. doi:10.1016/j.fldmyc.2017.07.010.
  20. ^ European larch canker Natural Resources Canada, accessed 23 April 2021
  21. ^ "Find a specific tree pest or disease". GOV.UK. 20 October 2021.
  22. ^ "Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine". www.gov.ie.
  23. ^ "Thousands of Afan Forest trees planted after infected larch". BBC. 21 February 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
  24. ^ European Standard EN 350-2 (1994); Durability of Wood and Wood-based Products – Natural Durability of Solid Wood: Guide to natural durability and treatability of selected wood species of importance in Europe
  25. ^ Stutley, Margaret (2003). Shamanism : An Introduction. London: Routledge, 2003.

Further reading

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